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Introduction
Since the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862, the US federal government has played an increasingly prominent role in the development of American higher education. By the mid-twentieth century, federal financial investment had become the largest single source of support for American colleges and universities (Brubacher and Rudy, 1997, p. 233). This financial aid ensured a close relationship between the federal government and higher education, but financial support also brought tensions, because it always entailed political oversight. The political “strings” attached to federal aid often came into conflict with professors' values, especially their expectation of academic freedom. In 1960, Douglas Knight noted that professors experienced both the benefits and the dilemmas of federal aid to higher education (Knight, 1960, p. 2). They wanted aid but did not like to be supervised or controlled by external parties, including the federal government. Fear of political control often led to heated debates in American colleges and universities. These debates reached a fever pitch after the passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1958 (NDEA), which provided unprecedented federal aid but also imposed unprecedented federal oversight in American higher education.
The NDEA was the first law enacted by the federal government to support all levels of the American education system. The scope and scale of its funding exceeded any previous federal aid to education. According to the Congressional Record, federal aid to higher education in 1960 was almost 14 times larger than what it was in 1958, and then doubled again in 1962 (Meranto, 1967, p. 6). Nearly every state and territory in the country made plans to implement the act, with approximately 1,200 universities and colleges joining its various aid programs. Students benefited from scholarships and loan programs as total enrollment in higher education increased by 37 percent in the five years after the NDEA was enacted (Celebrezze, 1963, p. 11). Historian Roger Geiger has commented that the great significance of the NDEA was its ability to break a political stalemate that had blocked federal aid to education in the past – a stalemate that concerned aid to religious and racially segregated schools. The NDEA funded both and, in this way, resolved a longstanding ambiguity about the role of the federal government in post-war universities (Geiger.